Nomads from the Steppe Defeat Darius the Great: The Scythians

This Scythian plaque, crafted in shell-mold gold, was found on the Western Asian Steppe. The figure is estimated to have been crafted between 400-300 BC. Gold items from that era were commonly interred with royal personages in burial mounds. The mounds are called kurgan. One of the most significant kurgan found to date is in the Siberian Republic of Tuva, where 5,700 hundred gold-crafted artifacts were unearthed. The deer stag shown here is typical of these artifacts, which often featured animals.

This photo was released into the public domain by MPEARL. The gold stag is on display at the Cleveland Museum in Ohio, USA.

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From the mist of history come legends that anchor the present to the past. Such a mix of legend and history is the story of Darius' pursuit of the 'barbarian' Scythians. Separating truth from legend in this case is difficult. "Witnesses" range from accounts by those whom the Scythians pillaged to tales told by second and third party sources. The Scythians themselves did not write, so their narrative becomes a matter of archeological evidence and questionable reports.

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This picture shows the plan for one Scythian burial site at Kostromskaya, Russia. The sketch shows 22 horses arranged around the interior perimeter of the burial chamber, and various artifacts at the center. Released into the public domain by the author

In 1909, archeologists uncovered a burial mound, apparently created for a royal personage, near Kostromskaya. The kurgan contained skeletons of more than 360 horses. Hitching posts were included. A sort of mummification of the deceased was evident--the body, including the head, had been stuffed with straw. A hollowed-out log became the final resting place, a kind of coffin, for the prepared body. This coffin-like receptacle was placed inside the burial mound. Articles for the comfort of the deceased were included in the mound.

It is largely through the burial ritual that scientists today are able to learn about Scythian culture.

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The most reliable historian of Darius' Scythian campaign is Herodotus. The Greek chronicler was not alive when the conflict took place. Consequently, many aspects of his narrative have been challenged by modern critics. However contemporary scholarship tends to support the essential elements of Herodotus' history.

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Scythian Trousers

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This drawing was copied from the design on a cup unearthed from a kurgan in Kul Oba, Crimea. The estimated vintage of the cup is 4th century BC. The seated figure on the left may be a king. This is suggested by his headgear. The figure kneeling on the far right is stringing a bow. The drawing was rendered in 1900 by an unknown artist. Note, the three men are wearing trousers,

This image is in the public domain in its country of origin and in countries where the copyright extends to the author's life plus 70 years

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Scythians did not write and they were not a settled people--but they did wear trousers. It seems they may have invented trousers. In 2014, archeologists digging in Yanghai, China discovered a pair of trousers near the remains of two men. These trousers are the earliest examples of this type of garment. Evidence suggests the deceased were nomadic horsemen and the trousers were designed to accommodate a life spent on horseback. The cemetery in Yanghei also "yielded a large number of bows of the 'Scythian' style". Carbon dating puts the age of the trousers at between the 10th and 13th centuries, BC.

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Why Did Darius Pursue the Scythians?

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Scythian is a broadly--used term. It often encompasses related nomadic tribes who inhabited the Eurasian Steppe. These tribes exerted a powerful influence on the settled communities that surrounded them. Their mode of warfare was asymmetrical. As nomads, they were not tied to the land. They were not bound to a standing army. Groups would come together as needed to attack and plunder. The Steppe warriors would swoop down at will and plunder territory encompassed by the Persian Empire. The loosely guarded communities in their path offered virtually no defense against the raids.

In their raids, the Scythians stole animals, produce, and people. They engaged in a lively slave trade with the Greeks. Grains, animals and treasure they likely kept for themselves. Most prisoners were sold as slaves.

For Darius, the Scythians represented a challenge to the security of lands under his control and they robbed the empire of wealth. This was a threat he could not ignore. He needed to put an end to their raids. Darius chose invasion and conquest as the way to do this.

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A Map Approximately Showing Darius' Route to Scythia

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This map roughly shows the route taken by Darius when he pursued the Scythians beyond the Danube. Darius' plan was to attack from the rear, with overwhelming force.

This map was created from information provided by several sources, including Darius the Great and Achaemenid Empire, and is my own creation. The lower picture of Persian soldiers is in the public domain because the copyright has expired. The picture of the Scythian soldier, near the top of the map, is also in the public domain because the copyright has expired.

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Who Were the Scythians?

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This 5th century BC bronze statue shows a Scythian archer, mounted on horseback. One advantage Scythians had over their opponents was the ability to shoot arrows skillfully while mounted.

This picture has been released into the public domain by the author, the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

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Various sources describe Scythians as either originating from Siberia or migrating north from Iran. They were a confederation of nomadic tribes that roamed the vast Eurasian Steppe. The name "Scythian" is applied to a number of groups that successively occupied the Steppe and harassed settlements on their border. To the ancient world, the word Scythian became synonymous with barbarian, and their raids were much feared.

Their military exploits were so successful that they were given an Assyrain princess in marriage. They pillaged through Palestine and reached the borders of Egypt, where a pharaoh offered tribute. The Biblical prophet Jeremiah declared that their quivers "were like an open grave".

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Who was Darius?

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Darius I (550-486 BC), also known as Darius the Great, was King of Persia from 522-486 BC. As such, he was the ruler of the Achaemenid Empire. But his reign did not come to him easily.

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The tomb of Cyrus the Great, in Pasargadae, Iran. An interesting note: Cyrus died in battle against the Massagatai, a people of the Steppe who were, according to Herodotus, similar to the Scythians.

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The Achaemenid Empire was founded by Cyrus the Great (580-529). His son, Cambysis II succeeded him, but was overthrown by Gaumata. Darius and a few colleagues killed Gaumata, and then the kingship fell to Darius. It took him years to assert authority over the various territories, but in those years he demonstrated extraordinary skill as an administrator and military strategist.

Darius is credited with a number of great achievements. He built a canal that connected the Red Sea to the Nile. He created a professional standing army made up mostly of Persians. He minted a gold coin , the Daric, which was accepted as currency beyond the Achaemenid Empire. He created an administrative system that allowed him to control the far reaches of his empire. It is said that the groundwork he laid enabled the Achaemenid Empire to endure for 200 years.

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What does Archeology tell us about Darius?

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This is a picture of the Persepolis, which was built by Darius I to be the center of the Achaemenid Empire. Archeologists place the earliest date of construction at 515 BC. The palace complex is built on a stone terrace. Stairs leading up the terrace are suitable for horses to climb. Xerxes, son of Darius, increased the size and magnificence of the complex. In 334 BC, with the Persian Empire in decline, Alexander the Great defeated Darius III and burned the Persepolis to the ground. Not until archeologists excavated the site in the in 1934 was this ancient capital of the Persians resurrected.

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Bas-relief Showing Darius with Followers

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Released into the public domain by hara1603, on Wikimedia Commons

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This cliff relief in Western Iran bears an inscription that was written in three languages: Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian. The script was key to deciphering cuneiform script. The narrative was authored by Darius. It describes his life and accomplishments.

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The Scythian Campaign

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The details of this campaign are derived largely from Herodotus. Modern sources alter his version somewhat. A detailed description of the campaign was offered by Sir Percy Molesworth Sykes (1867-1945) in his History of Persia, Vol 1. According to Sykes, Darius not only wished to end the Scythian raids, but also had an interest in gold mines that were located in Scythian territory.

Sykes explains that Darius led his army, estimated by some to have numbered 70,000, across the Bosporus on a bridge of boats which had been assembled by Greek allies. He went through Thracia and subdued the population. He then went on to the Danube, where another bridge of boats was assembled. After he crossed the Danube he "launched into the unknown Steppe"..

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This frieze depicts lancers from Darius' army. The work is dated 510 BC. It was found at the Darius' palace in Susa, which was the administrative center of Persian government. The frieze is displayed today at the Louvre. This photo was released into the public domain, by the author, Jastrow.

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As Darius penetrated into the Steppe, the critical flaw in his plan became evident. He had brought with him an enormous force, and he was a brilliant strategists. But this enemy was different from others he had fought. They didn't fight. They retreated. And then they'd return, in no organized fashion. But their defense plan was quite strategic. They would use what is called feint, and draw the enemy deep into their territory. Then they would attack with a barrage of arrows. As the Scythians drew back into their own territory, they burned everything behind them, so the Persians could not live off the land.

Thus harried, and weakened by constant attack, Darius saw his supplies dwindle and winter coming. After two months, he retreated.

At one point in the Scythians' feint and parry campaign, Darius sent a note to Idanthyrsus, leader of the Scythians. Darius demanded that the Scythians stand and fight. The response was dismissive. Idanthyrsus explained that his people had neither cities nor crops, nothing to defend. They had no reason to stand and fight.

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Darius did not refer to this campaign in writings or inscriptions. He seemed content to let the failed effort disappear from history. However, Darius' retreat from the Scythians was not a total loss. Scythian incursions into Persian territory were reduced and Darius went on to victories elsewhere.

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A sphinx frieze excavated at the Susa Palace. The sphinx was excavated in 1911 by Roland de Mecquenem and is now on display at the Louvre. This photo was released into the public domain, by the author, Jastrow.