Re-evaluating the Star of Bethlehem, Part 3: "For we have seen his star in the east and have come to worship him." (featuring @vuyusile as author)

To reinforce our understanding of Jupiter/Venus conjunctions, the below schematic is sourced from the web page: jeffreylhunt.wordpress.com.

In this part, we begin to interpret the meaning of the sequence we have identified in Part 2. This contains a fair amount of information, and given its bulk, I take the analysis only for the period 12 August 3BCE to 17 June 3BCE, focusing on the planetary interactions within Leo and Virgo. The balance of the interactions will follow in subsequent posts.

Seeing the wood for the trees: the Story of Ali Hafed

In 1960, Russel Cornwell popularised an ancient Persian morality tale in his book Acres of Diamonds (free pdf download at http://ebooksoneverything.com/wealth/acresofdiamonds.pdf). The story tells of an ancient wealthy Persian, Ali Hafed, who was “contented because he was wealthy, and wealthy because he was contented”.

One day his contentment is shattered: a visitor introduces him to the idea that true wealth is measured in diamonds (which, he is told, are “congealed drops of sunlight”) and suggests that Ali Hafed obtain a diamond mine so that, with one diamond the size of his thumb, he might purchase a dozen farms like those he presently owns. At Ali Hafed’s insistence, the visitor describes the place where such a mine might be found: “If you find a river flowing over white sand between high mountains, in those white sands you will always find diamonds”.

Ali Hafed “went to his bed that night a poor man”. His prior contentment has been devoured by the desire to find this new wealth; and he is haunted by the vision of the place where these diamonds might be found. The next day he sells his farms, leaves his family in the care of a friend, and departs in search of the white sand, river and mountains. Over the next few years he travels the world expending his money in a fruitless search for this elusive mine. Finally, Ali Hafed is ruined, alone and discontented; frenzied by his desire and the vision of the mysterious mine, he ends his life.

Meanwhile, the purchaser of Ali Hafed’s farms is happily in possession of the lands, houses, trees and streams. One day he takes his camel to the stream for a drink. There he discovers a stone, striking in its appearance, but not one that he recognizes. He has it identified and learns that it is a diamond. In fact, his newly acquired properties contain acres of diamonds.

Ali Hafed had been sitting on untold wealth all along. Distracted by the description of the mine, he had not learned to recognize the stone. Had he been able to recognize what he was truly searching for, he would not have missed what was before his very eyes.

Similarly, if we are to understand what motivated the Magi, we must put ourselves into their position in order to be able to recognize the true value of what was there in plain sight to see.

We must look at our data set through the eyes of those who had been capable of recognizing its true meaning: for when the Magi arrived they made no bones of the fact that they had come “to worship (the King of the Jews)”; and they claimed to have seen “his star” (Matt 2:2). Religious veneration and homage are the Magi’s primary objectives.

The religious power of what they had seen is driven home by an important contextual fact. Pause to consider the Magi’s journey. Jerusalem is approximately 880km from Baghdad as the crow flies. However, this traverses inhospitable desert. A more likely route would have been through the Fertile Crescent, a journey that would have taken them first north-west along the Euphrates River and West through Assyria before heading southward into Judea. Such a journey would have been closer to 1500 kilometers. At 25 days per month of travelling at 20 kilometers per day, it would have taken 3 months to complete the journey. It is likely that such an arduous journey would have taken longer. And the same time to travel back again. What besides religion has the power to inspire such a pilgrimage?

Their spiritual motivations are suggested by two further references in the text. When the Magi find the child they carry out their promise to worship him – despite his apparent unimportant surroundings. They see beyond the absence of the trappings of royalty, recognizing a deeper sovereignty in the child. And finally, they are warned in a dream not to return to the scheming Herod.

These were religious men with a spiritual quest. My analysis is premised on an acceptance that these astronomers were fully acquainted with Hebrew scriptures and the messianic tradition disclosed therein. After all, what else could explain their conduct?

The question may be thus simply put: did post-exilic Jewish astronomers attach religious significance to the stars; and the planets Jupiter, Venus, Mercury; and the constellations Leo and Virgo in particular; and if so, what was that significance?

The answer to the first question is not difficult; the second is significantly harder, with several aspects of the question remaining impervious to final resolution at present.

The significance of signs in the heavens

Although much neglected as an aspect of religious knowledge in modern times, the significance of the sun, moon and stars as presenting signs, including signs of religious significance, is well established in the Judeo-Christian scripture. Two of the many Old Testament references will suffice.

From the beginning, Genesis 1:14:

“14. And God said, let there be light in the heaven to divide the day from the night; and let them be for signs, and for seasons, and for days and for years.” (emphasis added)

Thus not only were the sun, moon and stars created for their functional utility in governing the natural processes to which this earth is subject, but they also served an important purpose – indeed a primary purpose - in communicating information.

Psalm 19: 1-4 :-

“1. The heavens declare the glory of God; and the firmament sheath his handiwork.

1. Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night showeth knowledge.
2. There is no speech nor language, where their voice is not heard.
3. Their line has gone out through all the earth, and their words to the end of the world…”

This text underscores that knowledge is to be gained by an examination of the night sky. The scripture also emphasises that these celestial signs communicate through a universal language; one that can be understood regardless of the tongue of the observer.

Our first question: did observers attach religious significance to the stars? is answered in the affirmative; and not only mandates, but demands of the faith-based astronomer to read the message communicated through the signs given by the sun, moon and stars, including that special class of wandering stars that we call planets today.

In order to answer the second question: what is that religious significance? let’s begin with the constellations.

The constellations and the ecliptic path

By the time of the Babylonian Captivity the ancient’s recognised 48 original constellations, consisting of 12 signs of the Zodiac with three associated constellations each, referred to as decans, totalling 36 decans. Most people do not know that the 12 signs of the Zodiac come from at least Babylonian times, and are, in fact, constellations in the sky. The signs of the Zodiac are referred to in Hebrew as Mazzaroth.

There is a good scientific basis to assert that these 48 constellations were identified as far back as at least 2700BCE, by peoples who lived at approximately the 36th degree North latitude (See Hugh Thurston's Early Astronomy, (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1994), p. 135-137 as summarised in http://www.johnpratt.com/items/docs/constellations_date.html) . This is too far North for Egypt and marginally too far South for Greece.

This dating accords with Persian and Arabic traditions that ascribe the invention of astronomy (or its revelation) to Adam, Seth and Enoch (see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy). The historian Josephus claimed that astronomical knowledge was preserved by Seth and his offspring in carved pillars of stone (see Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews, Book I:1–3). The apocryphal book of Enoch contains the claim that Enoch had had the mysteries of astronomy and the names of all of the stars revealed to him, by the angel Uriel. Enoch states

"I blessed the Lord of glory, who had made those great and splendid signs, that they might display the magnificence of his works to angels and to the souls of men; and that these might glorify all his works and operations; might see the effect of his power; might glorify the great labor of his hands; and bless him forever." — Enoch 35:3.

These claims attest to the antiquity of the constellations.

For the most part these 48 Original Constellations, although changing names and occasionally changing appearance were consistently reproduced by the astronomers of Egypt, Sumerian, Babylon, Persia, Greece and Rome; and later by Arab (Islamic) astronomers. Some of the same constellations are also found in ancient Indian and Chinese maps of the night sky.

It is not seriously disputed that the Greeks obtained their information from Egypt and Babylon; and handed it on to the Romans, largely through Ptolemy’s work in his book the Almagest. We have it today, through this route of transmission, as substantially amplified by Arab astronomers during the Middle Ages, and confirmed through modern study of Akkadian, Babylonian and Persian culture and religion.

The Egyptian Zodiac of Dendera captures an Egyptian reproduction of the constellations. There has been much controversy as to the date of this sculptured relief, presently on display in the Louvre, with dates spanning the 4th Millennium BCE to 4th Century CE. That debate seems to have been settled by the references to a solar and lunar eclipse of 51/52BCE referenced on the planisphere, placing this map of the ancient sky within a century of the common era (see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendera_zodiac ). This is an example of one of the several claims to a greater antiquity of Egyptian Astronomy made by the early Egyptian scholars that has had to yield to more modern and fuller research. The image is sourced from art-and-archeology.com.

The below graphic is a 1532 CE sketch of the constellations as described by Ptolemy. The image is sourced from www.maa.org. Take the time to identify the 12 signs of the Zodiac that are on the perimeter of the outer circle. That Perimeter represents a path through the sky that is known as the ecliptic, and will be described in more detail below.

Once you have identified the 12 signs of the Zodiac using the ecliptic as an aid, go back to the Egyptian Zodiac above and see if you can spot the constellations there. They traverse an inner circle about midway to the centre of the image. Following the positions on a clock, Sagittarius (the archer) is at 12; Capricorn (the goat) and Aquarius (the water bearer decanting water) are at 1 and 2; Pisces, the tied fish, is easy to see at 3; Aries (the ram) and Taurus (he bull) follow at 4 and 5; the diminutive pair holding hands at 6 is Gemini (the twins); the scarab beetle above the head of the Lion represents Cancer (the crab); the Lion, Leo, is at 8; Virgo (the virgin) follows at 9 with the scales of Libra at 10; and the Scorpion at 11.

The next picture is a page from the great arabian astronomer Al-Sufi's Book of the Constellations of the Fixed Stars. It shows the constellation of Sagittarius. This image is sourced on the internet at members.westnet.com.au. It shows a pictogram, but also names each of the individual stars, many of which names persist today.

Modern astronomers recognise 88 constellations, being all of the original 48 together with an additional 40, this last group being the incremental work of addition over the past 300 years. Most of these new constellations find themselves located in the Southern Hemisphere which was unseen by their Northern Hemisphere counterparts, and sadly (for one who lives in the South!) find no relevance to the discussion at hand.

Mastering all 48 constellations takes a bit of work; but fortunately, for the purpose of this post, we only need to focus on two of these constellations, Leo and Virgo, which featured repeatedly in our data set. But first a word about the ecliptic, to which the zodiac constellations were tied.

Babylonians were taught, or observed, defined and developed, the theory of the ecliptic plain or path.

• They observed that the sun, moon and the wandering stars traversed a similar path across the sky each day and night. They named this pathway the ecliptic (we take the word eclipse from this word, which is when the moon passes in front of the sun along this path during the day in the case of a solar eclipse).
• They described how the sun rose against a rotating background of stars during the course of an annual period, returning to its starting point each year, thus establishing the solar calendar.
• They divided this ecliptic path into 12 segments, which they associated with 12 unique constellations, representing approximately 30 degrees of night sky. 12 times 30 equals 360. Yes – you saw it! We thank the Babylonians for the foundation of our understanding of the geometry of the circle. As we also do for the building blocks of our time system: in an age greatly advanced by use of the metric system, we still use 60 seconds; 60 minutes; 24 hours per day – all multiples of 12 and factors of 360.
• They noted that the sun arose at a different point in each constellation as it travelled through these 12 segments, and associated each of these periods with a sign of the Zodiac. You’ve seen it again –the 12 months of our solar calendar. In fact, in some cultures, the month names adopted the names of the Zodiac.

Today, because of something known as precession (the finer points of which are not vital for the argument in today’s post) the starting point for the entry into each of the constellations has shifted slightly, and commences and ends between the 19th and 23rd day of each month. Thus if we were to observe the rising of the sun today we would observe that it arises during each period within the associated constellations as follows:

22 December – 19 January: - Capricorn
20 January – 18 February:- Aquarius
19 February – 20 March:- Pisces
21 March – 19 April:- Aries
20 April – 20 May:- Taurus
21 May – 21 June:- Gemini
22 June – 22 July:- Cancer
23 July – 21 August:- Leo
22 August – 22 September:- Virgo
23 September – 23 October:- Libra
24 October – 21 November :- Scorpio
22 November – 21 December:- Sagittarius

The Babylonian achievement of describing the division of the sky into 12 segments or arcs of approximately 30 degrees, provided the foundation upon which a great deal of subsequent astronomy (and certainly most of astrology) was built.

So much for the mechanics of it: what would an Astronomer with knowledge of the Old Testament Messianic Tradition have recognised in it?

The Lion

The preeminent prophetic utterance in the pre-Christian epoch in the Old Testament relating to a messianic astral sign is to be found in Numbers 24. It occurs in a prophecy made by the enigmatic prophet, Balaam, in the course of an open vision and prophecy concerning the destiny of Israel. Balaam was apparently also from the East, from a region known as Pethor, near the Euphrates. The relevant portions read:

“5. How goodly are thy tents, O Jacob, and thy tabernacles O Israel?... 9. He couched, he lay down as a lion, and as a great lion: who shall stir him up? … 17. I shall see him, but not now: I shall behold him, but not nigh: there shall come a Star out of Jacob, and a Sceptre shall rise out of Israel, and … 19. Out of Jacob shall come he that shall have dominion …” (emphasis added).

This text associates Jacob or Israel with a great lion, that is dormant and will be aroused. The speaker states that he would see the Messiah but not then; he would behold him but not nigh, that is, not immediately – thereby pointing to the future fulfilment of the prophecy. Instead, as the colon suggests, the coming of “he that shall have dominion”, would be signalled by a star and sceptre that would come or arise out of Jacob or Israel (being Jacob’s covenant name).

The text has a literal and figurative meaning. In this case the figurative meaning is well established: the Messiah would shine as a star, a metaphor for his illustrious and enlightened character; and hold authority through a sceptre, a metaphor for his power and regal destiny.

At a literal level, however, the prophecy points to a star and a sceptre appearing. What can this mean?.

Much has been written about the manifestation of the Star of Bethlehem as a literal fulfilment of this prophecy, and this will be examined in this Part. Little has been written about the sceptre, but as my next post will argue, the sceptre is also a literal reference to an astronomical representation.

One acquainted with the Old Testament text would also immediately recognise in the passage quoted from Numbers, a similarity to a passage in Genesis 49, where Jacob, the Israelite patriarch, pronounced blessings upon his progenitors, constituting the 12 tribes of Israel. Most students of the scriptures find this passage of scripture to be opaque and obscure. Focussing on those blessings given to Judah (see Genesis 49: 9-12) the scripture (insofar as it concerns this discussion) states:

“9. Judah is a lion’s whelp: from the prey, my son, thou art gone up: he stooped down, he couched as a lion, and as an old lion; who shall rouse him up?

1. The sceptre shall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh come; and unto him shall the gathering of the people be.”

In verse 9:-
• Judah is described as a lion’s whelp, or cub. Thus Judah is linked to the Lion who was also described as Jacob in Numbers: Judah is the son, or whelp, of Jacob, who is again described as an old lion.
• The Lion has stooped down and couched (lit: lay down).
• The reposing lion is to be aroused and go up from his prey, in order to come into his royal potential as verse 10 makes clear.

Verse 10:-
• makes an unmistakable messianic reference: the word “Shiloh”, has multiple meanings, literally, “peacemaker”, “he whose right it is” or “he who is to be sent” – apposite titles each when associated with the Messiah.
• The advent of Shiloh is linked to a sceptre that is associated with Judah, or the Lion; and, in the literary style of repetition, this sceptre is described as a lawgiver located between the (rightful holder’s?) feet. The connection with the prophecy in Numbers is obvious.
• This lawgiver would secure the gathering of the people, a further unmistakable reference to a messianic purpose.

What does this prophecy mean?

When the text is read with astronomical signification, it comes into an extraordinarily clear literal focus.

The constellation of Leo, or the Lion, is a prominent constellation in the zodiac. In the picture below, the artist for Stellarium has Leo in an active position; but some the original descriptions have him in repose, lying upon his tummy. Like the body of the Sphynx.

What is the prey that the prophecy alludes to? In the above picture, Leo Minor and the Sextans are modern constellations, and not part of the original 48. Beneath Leo (to the side in the way that the above screenshot is oriented), we find the constellation of Hydra or the Serpent, one of the longest of the constellations, that runs adjacent to Virgo and Leo – in fact, the head of the serpent is in front of Leo’s feet. Look back at the Zodiac of Dendera reproduced above: the Lion is not standing upon a sled in the bottom left quadrant! but upon a long serpent, with a raised head.

The religious significance of this, seen in the context of the foreordained purpose of Christ in triumphing over “that old serpent, called the devil” (See Revelations 12: 9; 20: 2) hardly needs to be stated. So too, the power of the Messiah to “crush (the serpent’s) head” (See Genesis 3: 15). The imagery of the lion going up from its prey comes into its own within an astronomical setting.

The very bright appulse that arose in the East on 12 August 3BCE now has interest that transcends its luminous brilliance. Arising in Leo, symbol of the royal birth of he “that shall have dominion”, this majestic appulse could have announced the long awaited star arising out of Jacob or the Lion.

The Virgin

A second theme of messianic prophecy concerns the role of the Virgin. In Isaiah 7:14 it is stated:

“Therefore the Lord himself shall give you a sign. Behold, a virgin shall conceive, and bear a son, and shall call his name Emmanuel.”

Emmanuel or “God with us” is the usual focus of this scripture; and the Christian tradition holds that this prophecy was literally fulfilled in the incarnation of the Son of God through the Virgin Mary.

In addition, if the text is read through the lens mandated by Genesis 1:14, the sign spoken of must be sought in the sun, moon and stars, for that is where signs are given. Is there a constellation that may be a candidate for fulfilling this prophecy; one that prefigures the virgin? Virgo leaps out as the obvious candidate. Virgo immediately follows Leo in the zodiacal procession along the ecliptic path. And the face of the Virgin is the face of the Sphynx. In the below screen shot she is seen holding an ear of wheat in her left hand and branch in her right.

The fact that some of the conjunctions in the data set play out in Virgo assumes greater significance – particularly since they are associated with the conception of Emmanuel. And as we shall see in another part of this series, there are other important events associated with the sun and the moon and Virgo that the Magi would have seen that we have yet to consider.

The Sun, Moon and the Planets

The Babylonians were undoubtedly aware of the five visible wandering “stars” or planets. These “stars” were special because they exhibited two features that other stars did not.

The most obvious feature was their movement through the background body of stars. In this respect the five planets could be divided into two classes.

The first class consisted of the two planets Venus and Mercury, the former of which was the brightest object in the night sky behind the moon, and which arose at its brightest usually as a morning star above the horizon. Over a period of weeks, each succeeding night would see it travel some of the way to the sky’s midpoint, but never reach it, before turning and retreating towards the horizon where it would disappear from view for a period of time. Its less illustrious neighbour, Mercury, would appear for short spaces of time exhibiting a similar passage of motion. We know today that the apparent behaviour of Mercury and Venus is a consequence of their status as inferior planets, that is, planets that are closer to the Sun than the Earth. Their motion displays its characteristics because these planets never circle the Earth and consequently never traverse the full ecliptic path.

The other three planets make up the second class. Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, are planets that traverse the entire ecliptic path over different periods of time. They thus trace their path across the night sky, unlike Venus and Mercury. This occurs because Mars, Jupiter and Saturn are superior planets, ie further from the Sun than the Earth. The further the planet is from the Sun the longer the orbital period. Thus, Mars orbits around the sun approximately every 1,9 years; Jupiter every 11,9 years and Saturn every 29,5 years.

The second significant feature of the planets is their ability to stop their motion through the sky, reverse and then stop and move forward again. Today we describe this as retrograde motion, and we have described this in earlier posts. This feature was an important observation anciently, and one that the observers of the night sky paid close attention to.

Few people are aware that the 7 days of the week are named after the seven moving celestial spheres: the sun, moon and 5 visible planets. And this is true across an overwhelming number of cultures in the world (See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_of_the_days_of_the_week).

Since our enquiry is into the religious significance of the planets, you will have recognised, perhaps especially from the Greek and Latin names, each of these days of the week represent a pagan deity, and this is also true of the Germanic names. There is some similarity between the roles of these deities, and this is worth the remark; however, their correspondence is not always identical. It is safe to say that the naming by successive cultures shows some syncretisation by the succeeding culture over the preceding one; however, while this shows a desire to retain the system of naming, it does not always correspond directly.

There is very little information available on the religious significance associated with the planets in Judaism.

Only two planets are mentioned in the Old Testament. Saturn is mentioned directly and Venus indirectly.

In the Old Testament, it is apparently Venus that is being referred to as "the queen of heaven," in Jeremiah 7:18 and Jeremiah 44; 17, 18, 19, and 25. This is inferred from the cakes which are said to have been baked for her. At the time the Assyrians and Babylonians offered cake offerings called "the bread of Ishtar" to the goddess Ishtar who was associated with Venus. But it must be noted that this and other practices honouring the "queen of heaven" were condemned by Jeremiah in these passages.

It has been pointed out that the menorah's seven lamps correspond to the lights of the seven Classical planets: the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun (4th), Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn (See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy ). And the names of the days of the Hebrew week were derived from the names of the planets (See http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2052-astronomy).

In Hebrew, Jupiter is named Tzedeq, meaning "righteousness", in the sense of "justice", a term denoting an attribute of God that is also applied to the Messiah.

The most common Hebrew notation for Venus is "Norah". which denotes ‘brightness’, or ‘shine’. This may be a consequence of the brightness of the planet.

Mercury is known as the Sun’s star, or sometimes simply the star.

It is difficult to find anything more than superficial similarities between the Sumerian and Babylonian polytheistic religions on the one hand and the monotheism of Judaism.

If the thesis that the naming of the constellations included the planets, predated the birth of astronomy in these civilisations, one must ask if these civilisations adopted the original meanings associated with the planets, as apparently occurred with the constellations, so that we can discern a particle of original truth in their religious names and purposes; or whether there is no relationship whatsoever. In my, albeit limited conspectus of what is known, it is not possible to say whether what we learn from archeological artefacts of religious practices in Assyria and Babylon contains an echo of an original association, or is entirely separate.

We can note that the Babylonians ascribed special powers to these planets which were attributed to members within their pantheon of gods. Thus:

• Venus was known as the bright queen of the sky (Babylonian), or the lady of the heavens (Sumerian), but both cultures came to associate the planet with sexual cultish practices of the goddess Ishtar (Babylonian) and Innana (Sumerian). Such practices were specifically outlawed under Judaism. If there is a similarity of association it starts and ends with the name of the planet.
• Jupiter was know as the king planet, and was associated with Marduk (babylonian) who is reputed to be the ruler of the gods.
• Mercury was known as Nabu, and was associated with wisdom and writing including to act as the carrier of the tablets of destiny on behalf of the gods.

It is tempting to see in the Babylonian appellations for Venus and Jupiter that a conjunction between these planets signifies a connection between the King and the Queen planet; it may represent the union between the divine feminine and the divine masculine. But these associations appear tenuous and possibly at variance with what we know of post-exilic Judaism.

Similarly, it is not possible to draw any clear conclusion concerning the circling of Venus by Mercury by a reliance on Babylonian association. If there is a shadow of the original intention behind the meaning of these planets, then Mercury may be considered the herald of the destiny for the divine feminine in the extraordinary mystery of the condescension of God through the joining of an immortal being with a mortal virgin, who would conceive and bear a son, in accordance with the prophecies.

As poetic as these interpretations may be, the temptation must be resisted. There is not enough evidence to make confident interpretations of a useful syncretisation of the religious significance of Jupiter, Venus and Mars between the religions of Babylon and post exilic Judaism. In fact it appears to be absent. This appears to be a dead end to the investigation.

We are thus left with the more prosaic denotations: Jupiter stands for righteousness and justice; Venus for light and shining brightness (which could be a metaphor for truth) and Mercury is the Sun's emissary.

In the next Part we will examine why the astronomers would have paid special attention to this conjunction and its sequelae. We will examine the other prophesied sign, the scepter, that would not depart from the feet of Leo before the Messiah had come. We will also see how “the glory of the Lord had risen upon (a star set to) arise and shine".