Kurdistan Workers' Party

The Kurdistan Workers' Party or PKK (Kurdish : Partiya Karkerên Kurdistanê
) is an organization based in Turkey and Iraq . Since 1984 the PKK has been involved in an armed conflict with the Turkish state , with the initial aim of achieving an independent Kurdish state, later changing it to a demand for equal rights and Kurdish autonomy in Turkey. [14][15][16][17]
The group was founded in 1978 in the village of Fis (near Lice ) by a group of Kurdish students led by Abdullah Öcalan .[18] The PKK's ideology was originally a fusion of revolutionary socialism and Kurdish nationalism, seeking the foundation of an independent, socialist state in the region, which was to be known as
Kurdistan. The initial reason given by the PKK for this was the oppression of Kurds in Turkey. [19][20] By then, the use of Kurdish language, dress,
folklore, and names were banned in Kurdish-inhabited areas. [21] The words "Kurds", "Kurdistan", or "Kurdish" were officially banned by the Turkish government. [22] Following the military coup of 1980 , the Kurdish language was officially prohibited in public and private life.[23] Many who spoke, published, or sang in Kurdish were arrested and imprisoned. [24] The PKK was then formed, as part of a growing discontent over the suppression of Turkey's ethnic Kurds, in an effort to establish linguistic, cultural, and political rights for Turkey's ethnic Kurdish minority. [25]
Since the PKK's foundation, it has been involved in armed clashes with Turkish security forces. The full-scale insurgency, however, did not begin until 15 August 1984, when the PKK announced a Kurdish uprising. Since the conflict began, more than 40,000 have died, most of whom were Kurdish civilians. [26] The European Court of Human Rights has condemned Turkey for thousands of human rights abuses. [27][28] Many judgements are related to systematic executions of Kurdish civilians, [29] torturing, [30] forced displacements, [31] destroyed villages, [32][33][34] arbitrary arrests , [35] murdered and disappeared Kurdish journalists, activists and politicians. [36][37][38]
Since PKK leader Öcalan's capture and imprisonment in 1999, he has moved on from Marxism–Leninism , [39] leading the party to adopt his new political platform of
democratic confederalism while ceasing its official calls for the establishment of a fully independent country. In May 2007, former members of the PKK helped form the
Kurdistan Communities Union (KCK), an umbrella organisation of Kurds from Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria. In 2013, the PKK declared a ceasefire agreement and began slowly withdrawing its fighters to the
Kurdistan Region of northern Iraq as part of the "solution process" between the Turkish state and the long-disenfranchised Kurdish minority. In July 2015, the PKK announced that a ceasefire was over and said that Ankara had welched on its promises regarding the Kurdish issue. [40] In August 2015, the PKK announced that they would accept another ceasefire with Turkey only under United Nations or US guarantees. [41]
The PKK is listed as a terrorist organization by several states and organizations, including the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the United States , the United Kingdom and the European Union. However, the
United Nations and countries such as
Switzerland, China , India , Russia and Egypt have not designated the PKK as a terrorist organization.
History
Main article: History of the Kurdistan Workers' Party
PKK supporters at 2003 march, London
In the early 1970s, the organization's core group was made up largely of students led by Abdullah Öcalan ("Apo ") in Ankara. By then, the use of Kurdish language, dress, folklore, and names were banned in Kurdish-inhabited areas. [21] In an attempt to deny their existence, the Turkish government categorized Kurds as "Mountain Turks" until 1991. [21][42][43]
[44] The words "Kurds", "Kurdistan ", or "Kurdish" were officially banned by the Turkish government. [22] Following the military coup of 1980 , the Kurdish language was officially prohibited in public and private life.[23] Many who spoke, published, or sang in Kurdish were arrested and imprisoned. [24] The PKK was then formed, as part of a growing discontent over the suppression of Turkey's ethnic Kurds, in an effort to establish linguistic, cultural, and political rights for Turkey's ethnic Kurdish minority. [25] The group focused to the large oppressed Kurdish population in south-east Turkey . A meeting on 25 November 1978, in a tea house near Diyarbakır is considered the founding meeting. [45] On 27 November 1978, the group adopted the name Kurdistan Workers' Party. Espousing a Marxist ideology, the group took part in violent conflicts with right-wing entities as a part of the political chaos in Turkey at the time. Some sources claimed that the group tried to assassinate the Kurdish tribal leader Mehmet Celal Bucak ( diq ; ku ; tr) in 1979. They claimed that he exploited the peasants, and collaborated with Turkey in oppressing the Kurds. It is believed that this marked a period of intense urban warfare among other political elements.
Turkish sources claimed that the 1980 Turkish coup d'état pushed the organization to another stage , with members being executed, doing jail time, being subject to capital punishment, or fleeing to Syria. On 10 November 1980, it was claimed that the PKK bombed the Turkish Consulate in Strasbourg , France in a joint operation with the Armenian radical group ASALA, which they claimed as the beginning of a "fruitful collaboration." [46] The PKK didn't take responsibility despite a numerous of accusations.
Starting in 1984, the PKK transformed into a paramilitary group, using training camps in Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and France. It launched attacks and bombings against Turkish governmental installations, the military, and various institutions of the state that were seen as a part of
Turkification . The PKK mainly focused on attacks against Turkish military targets in Turkey. [47][48]
From the mid-1990s, it was claimed that the organization began to lose
the upper hand in its operations as a consequence of a change of tactics by Turkey and Syria's steady abandonment of support for the group. At the same time, the government started to use more violent methods to suppress Kurdish activists. From 1996 to 1999, the PKK conducted hundreds of bomb attacks against military and police bases. [49]
[50] In the late 1990s, Turkey increased the pressure and the
undeclared war between Turkey and Syria ended open Syrian support. [51] The Kurdish-Turkish conflict (1978-present) was in its peak in the 90's. 1999, Öcalan was captured, prosecuted and sentenced to death, but this was later commuted to life imprisonment as part of the government's seeking European Union membership. [52]
As a result of Kurdish activism, the Turkish parliament began a controlled process of dismantling some anti-Kurdish legislation, using the term "normalization" or "rapprochement," depending on the sides of the issue. It partially relaxed the bans on broadcasting and publishing in the
Kurdish language , although significant barriers remain. [53] At the same time, the PKK was blacklisted in many countries. On 2 April 2004, the
Council of the European Union added the PKK to its list of terrorist organizations. Later that year, the US Treasury moved to freeze assets of branches of the organization. The PKK went through a series of changes, and in 2003 it ended the unilateral truce declared when Öcalan was captured. [54]
Despite a numerous of large offensives against the PKK bases, the government has failed in its war against the PKK. On 20 March 2016, the PKK announced that they will support the Peoples' United Revolutionary Movement which aim to attain "democracy and [a] free future" for "peoples against imperialism, capitalism, chauvinism, fascism and racism", by working towards the overthrow of the ruling AKP, who they deem fascist. It is known that the PKK has given some kind of support to this alliance. [55]
Ideology
The organization originated in the 1970s from the radical left and drew its membership from other existing leftist groups, mainly Dev-Genç. [56]
:127 The organization initially presented itself as part of the worldwide communist revolution. Its aims and objectives have evolved over time towards the goal of national autonomy, [57] and Democratic Confederalism .[58][59][60][61][62][63]
[64] [39] On 20 March 2005, Öcalan declared the need for democratic confederalism. [65] Whilst this shift has been interpreted as one from a call for independence to an autonomous republic, [62][66] some scholars have concluded that the PKK still maintains independence as the ultimate goal, but through society-building rather than state-building. [67]
[68]
During the 1980s, the movement included and cooperated with other ethnic groups, including ethnic Turks, who were following the radical left. [56] :127 The organization initially aimed to establish a fully independent
Kurdistan, in Kurdish areas of Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Iran. [56] :129
Organization
The PKK has multiple heads in various countries, such as Iraq, Iran, Syria, Russia and West European countries. [69] However, Abdullah Öcalan was the unchallenged leader of the organization. After the capture of Öcalan, authorities induced him to publicly plead for a ceasefire. [70] Though serving life imprisonment, Öcalan is still considered the honorary leader and figurehead of the organization.[71]
Murat Karayılan led the organization until 2015. Cemil Bayik was elected as a new leader in 2015. [72] Cemil Bayik beside Abdullah Öcalan, Kesire Yildirim Öcalan, and Hakki Karaer was one of the core leaders. Cemil Bayik's military skills and leadership were criticized by Abdullah Öcalan during his 1999 trial. The organization appointed "Doctor Bahoz," the nom de guerre of Fehman Huseyin, a Syrian Kurd , in charge of the movement's military operations signifying the long-standing solidarity among Kurds from all parts of Kurdistan.[73]
Training camps
The first training camps were established in 1982 in Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Iran and also in Bekaa Valley with the support of the Syrian government. [74][75] After the Iran-Iraq war and Kurdish civil war, the PKK moved all its camps to north Iraq in 1998. The PKK had also completely moved to Qandil mountains from
Bekaa Valley, under intensive pressure, after Syria expelled Öcalan and shut down all camps established in the region.[75] At the time, Northern Iraq was experiencing vacuum of control after Operation Provide Comfort . Instead of a single training camp which could be easily destroyed, the organization created many small camps. During this period the organization set up a fully functioning enclave with training camps, storage facilities, and reconnaissance and communications centers.
In 2007, the organization was believed to have camps strung out through the mountains that straddle the border between Turkey and Iraq, including in Sinaht, Haftanin, Kanimasi and Zap. [76] The organization developed two types of camps. The mountain camps, located in Turkey, Iraq and Iran, are used as forward bases from which militants carry out attacks against Turkish military bases. The units deployed there are highly mobile and the camps have only minimal infrastructure. [76] The other permanent camps, in the Qandil Mountains, have more developed infrastructure—including a field hospital, electricity generators and a large proportion of the PKK's lethal and non-lethal supplies. [76] The organization is using Qandil mountain camps for its political activities.
It was claimed in 2004 that there was another political training camp in Belgium, evidence that the organization had used training camps in Europe for political and ideological training. [77]
Former flag of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (1978–1995)
Second flag of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (1995–2002)
Flag used by the KADEK (2002–2003)
Flag used by the Kongra-Gel (KGK) (2003–2005)
Flag used by the Kurdistan Communities Union (KCK) (2005–present)
The official flag of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (2005–present)[78]
Political representation
The organization had sympathizer parties in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey beginning in the early 1990s. The establishment of direct links to the organization has been a question. In sequence HEP/
DEP / HADEP/ DEHAP / DTP and the latest Peace and Democracy Party (BDP), which later changed its name to Democratic Regions Party (DBP) on 11 July 2014, [79] have been accused of sympathizing with the PKK, since they have refused to brand it as a terrorist group. Turkis newspaper the World Bulleting claimed in June 2007 that report by the European Union Institute for Security Studies had stated that "It is an obvious secret that DTP is connected to PKK in a way and PKK is a terrorist group." [80]
Political organizations established in Turkey are banned from propagating or supporting separatism. Several political parties supporting Kurdish rights have been allegedly banned on this pretext. The constitutional court claimed to find direct links between the HEP/ DEP / HADEP and the PKK. In 2008 the DTP-party was prosecuted by the constitutional court. It is reported that Turkey has used the PKK as an excuse to close Kurdish political parties.
Turkish-Kurdish politician and conspiracist Abdülmelik Fırat had claimed that Democratic Society Party (DTP) was founded by PKK, and that 80 percent of Kurds do not vote for this party. [81] Senior DTP leaders maintain that they support a unified Turkey within a democratic framework. Aysel Tuğluk published an article in Radikal in May 2007 as the co-president of DTP, to prove that claim. [82]
Several parliamentarians and other elected representatives have been jailed for speaking in Kurdish, carrying Kurdish colors or otherwise allegedly "promoting separatism", most famous among them being Leyla Zana .[83] The ECHR [expand acronym ] has condemned Turkey for arresting and executing Kurdish writers, journalists and politicians. [citation needed]
Alleged links with Turkish intelligence
See also: Ergenekon trials
During the controversial Ergenekon trials in Turkey, allegations have been made that the PKK is linked to elements of the Turkish intelligence community.
Şamil Tayyar, author and member of the ruling AK Party, claimed that Öcalan was released in 1972 after just three months' detention on the initiative of the National Intelligence Organization , and that his 1979 escape to Syria was aided by elements in MIT [ expand acronym ] .[84] Öcalan has admitted making use of money given by the MIT to the PKK, which he says was provided as part of MIT efforts to control him. [85]
Former police special forces member
Ayhan Çarkın alleged that the state, using the clandestine Ergenekon network, colluded with militant groups such as the PKK, Dev-Sol , and
Hezbollah , with the goal of profiting from the war. [86]
A witness to the trials testified that General Levent Ersöz, former head of
JITEM , had frequent contact with PKK commander Cemil Bayık.[87]
According to official figures, it was claimed that nearly 2000 PKK members became itirafçı ("confessors") after their arrest. Some were persuaded or coerced to play an active role in the conflict, particularly under the direction of the
Turkish Gendarmerie's unofficial
JİTEM unit.
Activities
During its establishment in the mid-1970s, amid violent clashes country-wide , the organization used classic violent methods, such as the alleged failed assassination of Mehmet Celal Bucak as a propaganda-of-the-deed .[56] After the 1980 military coup , the organization developed into a paramilitary organization using resources it acquired in Syria, Russia, Europe and
Bekaa valley in part of ex-Syrian-controlled Lebanon. After 1984, PKK began also to use Maoist theory of people's war . [88][89] There are three phases in this theory. The militant base during the initial years was coming from different sources, so the first two phases were diffused to each other.
Political activity 1978–1984
In the first phase (1978–1984), the PKK tried to gain the support of the Kurdish population. It attacked the machinery of government and distributed propaganda in the region. PKK tactics were based on ambush,
sabotage , riots, protests, and
demonstrations against the Turkish government. During these years, the PKK also fought a turf war against other radical Islamist Kurdish and Turkish organisations in Turkey. Turkish newspapers claimed that the PKK effectively used the prison force to gain appeal among the population which PKK has denied. [90][91] In the whole Turkey, this period was characterized by violent clashes which culminated in the 1980 military coup .
During this time, the organization argued that its violent actions against the government forces were explained by the need to defend Kurds in the context of what it considered as the massive cultural suppression of Kurdish identity (including the 1983 Turkish Language Act Ban) and cultural rights carried out by other governments of the region. [92] Turkey also used violent and oppressive methods against its Kurdish citizens to stop them supporting the PKK.
Armed rebellion 1984–1999
In the second phase (1984–1999), which followed the return of civilian rule in 1983, escalating attacks were made on the government's military and vital institutions all over the country. The objective was to destabilise Turkish authority through a long, low-intensity confrontation. In addition to skirmishing with Turkish military and police forces and local
village guards, the PKK has conducted bomb attacks on government and police installations.[93] Kidnapping and assassination against government and military officials and Kurdish tribal leaders who were named as puppets of the state were performed as well. Widespread
sabotages were continued from the first stage. Turkish sources had also claimed that the PKK also carried out kidnappings of tourists, primarily in
Istanbul but also at different resorts. However, the PKK had in its history arrested 4 tourists and released them all after warning them to not enter the war zone. The vast majority of PKK's actions have taken place mainly in Turkey against the Turkish military, although it has on occasions co-operated with other Kurdish nationalist paramilitary groups in neighboring states, such as Iraq and Iran. [94] The PKK has also attacked Turkish diplomatic and commercial facilities across Western Europe in the late 80's. In effect, the Turkish state has led a series of counter-insurgency operations against the PKK, accompanied by political measures, starting with an explicit denunciation of separatism in the
1982 Constitution , and including proclamation of the state of emergency in various PKK-controlled territories starting in 1983 (when the military relinquished political control to the civilians). This series of administrative reforms against terrorism included in 1985 the creation of village guard system by the then prime minister Turgut Özal . Turkey involved in serious human rights violations during the 90's. The ECHR has condemned Turkey for executions of Kurdish civilians, torturing, forced displacements and massive arrests.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, in an effort to win increased support from the Kurdish peasantry, the PKK altered its leftist secular ideology to better accommodate and accept Islamic beliefs. The group also abandoned its previous strategy of attacking Kurdish and Turkish civilians who were against them, focusing instead on government and military targets. [95] In its campaign, the organization has been accused of carrying out atrocities against both Turkish and Kurdish civilians and its actions have been criticised by human rights groups such as Amnesty International [96] and Human Rights Watch [97] [citation needed] . Similar actions of the Turkish state have also been criticized by these same groups.
Cease fire 1999–2004
The third phase (1999–2012), after the capture of Öcalan, PKK reorganized itself and new leaders were chosen by its members. The PKK wasn't active between 2000 and 2003. The organization made radical changes to survive, such as changing ideology and setting new goals. At the same time, the PKK continued to recruit new members and sustain its fighting force.
According to Turkish sources, in April 2002 at its 8th Party Congress, the PKK changed its name to the
Kurdistan Freedom and Democracy Congress (KADEK) and proclaimed a commitment to nonviolent activities in support of Kurdish rights. A PKK/KADEK spokesman stated that its armed wing, The People's Defense Force, would not disband or surrender its weapons for reasons of self-defense, however. This statement by the PKK/KADEK avowing it would not lay down its arms underscores that the organization maintained its capability to carry out armed operations. PKK/KADEK established a new ruling council in April, its membership virtually identical to the PKK's Presidential Council. The PKK/KADEK did not conduct an armed attack in 2002; however, the group periodically issued veiled threats that it will resume violence if the conditions of its imprisoned leader are not improved and its forces are attacked by Turkish military, and it continued its military training like before.
In November 2003, another congress was held which lead to renaming itself as the People's Congress of Kurdistan or Kongra-Gel (KGK) . The stated purpose of the organizational change was to leave behind nationalistic and state-building goals, in favor of creating a political structure to work within the existing nation-states. [98] Through further internal conflict during this period, it is claimed that 1500 militants left the organization, [98] along with many of the leading reformists, including
Nizamettin Tas and Abdullah Öcalan 's younger brother Osman Öcalan [99]
Second insurgency 2004–2012
Kongra-Gel called off the cease-fire at the start of June 2004, saying Turkish security forces had refused to respect the truce. Turkish security forces were increasingly involved in clashes with Kurdish separatist fighters. Ankara claimed that about 2,000 Kurdish fighters had crossed into Turkey from hideouts in mountainous northern Iraq in early June 2004.
While the fight against the Turkish security forces between 2004 and 2010 continued, the PKK and its ancillary organizations continued to enjoy substantial support among the Kurds of Turkey. In 2005, the original name of the organization PKK was restored. Turkey's struggle against the Kongra-Gel/PKK was marked by increased clashes across Turkey in 2005. In the Southeast, Turkish security forces were active in the struggle against the Kongra-Gel/PKK. There were bombings and attempted bombings in resort areas in western Turkey and Istanbul, some of which resulted in civilian casualties. A radical Kurdish separatist group calling itself the Kurdish Freedom Hawks (TAK) claimed responsibility for many of these attacks. The TAK is a rival to PKK that since 2006 repeatedly damaged the PKK's efforts to negotiate cease-fires and unlike the PKK, is seeking to establish independent Kurdistan. [100] In 2006 alone, the PKK claimed over 500 victims. In October 2006, the PKK allegedly declared a unilateral cease-fire that slowed the intensity and pace of its attacks, but attacks continued in response to Turkish security forces significant counterinsurgency operations, especially in the southeast. On 21 October 2011 Iranian foreign minister
Ali Akbar Salehi announced Iran would co-operate with Turkey in some military operations against the PKK. [101]
2012 was the most violent year in the armed conflict between the Turkish State and PKK since 1999. At least 541 individuals lost their lives as a result of the clashes including 316 militants and 282 soldiers. In contrast, 152 individuals lost their lives in 2009 until the Turkish government initiated negotiations with the PKK leadership. [102] The failure of this negotiations contributed to violence that were particularly intensified in 2012. The PKK encouraged by the rising power of the Syrian Kurds increased its attacks in the same year.
During the Syrian civil war , the Kurds in Syria have established control over their own region with the help of the Turkish Kurdistan Workers' Party as well as with support from the Kurdistan Regional Government in
Irbil , under President Massoud Barzani .[103]
2013–15 Peace process
Main article: Solution process
Demonstration in Paris for slain PKK workers
In late 2012, the Turkish government began secret talks with Öcalan for a
ceasefire. [104] To facilitate talks, government officials transmitted letters between Öcalan in jail to PKK leaders in northern Iraq. [105] On 21 March 2013, a ceasefire was announced. [106] On 25 April, it was announced that the PKK would leave Turkey. Commander Murat Karayilan remarked "As part of ongoing preparations, the withdrawal will begin on May 8, 2013. Our forces will use their right to retaliate in the event of an attack, operation or bombing against our withdrawing guerrilla forces and the withdrawal will immediately stop." [107] The semi-autonomous Kurdish region of Iraq welcomed the idea of refugees from its northern neighbor. [108] The BDP held meetings across the region to explain the pending withdrawal to concerned citizens. "The 8th of May is a day we both anticipate and fear," explained party leader Pinar Yilmaz. "We don't trust the government at all. Many people here are afraid that once the guerrillas are gone, the Turkish military will crack down on us again." [106]
The withdrawal began as planned with groups of fighters crossing the border from southeastern Turkey to northern Iraq. [104] Iraqi leadership in Baghdad, however, declared that it would not accept armed groups into its territory. "The Iraqi government welcomes any political and peaceful settlement", read an official statement. "[But] it does not accept the entry of armed groups to its territories that can be used to harm Iraq's security and stability." [108] The prospect of armed Kurdish forces in northern Iraq threatens to increase tensions between the region and Baghdad who are already at odds over certain oil producing territory. PKK spokesman Ahmet Deniz sought to ease concerns stating the plan would boost democracy. "The [peace] process is not aimed against anyone," he said "and there is no need for concerns that the struggle will take on another format and pose a threat to others." [108]
It is estimated that between 1,500 and 2,000 PKK fighters resided in Turkey at the time.[citation needed ] The withdrawal process was expected to take several months even if Iraq does not intervene to try to stop it. [108] On 14 May 2013, the first groups of 13 male and female fighters entered Iraq's Heror area near the Metina mountain after leaving Turkey. They carried with them Kalashnikov assault rifles, light machine guns and rocket-propelled grenade launchers before a welcoming ceremony. [109]
Kurdish PKK guerilla, 23 March 2014
On 29 July 2013, the PKK issued an ultimatum in saying that the peace deal would fail if reforms were not begun to be implemented within a month. [110] In October, Cemil Bayik warned that unless Turkey resumed the peace process, the PKK would resume operations to defend itself against it. He also accused Turkey of waging a proxy war against Kurds during the Syrian civil war by supporting other extremist rebels who were fighting them.[111]
Iraqi Kurdistan President Masoud Barzani backed the initiative saying, alongside Erdogan: "This is a historic visit for me ... We all know it would have been impossible to speak here 15 or 20 years ago. Prime Minister Tayyip Erdogan has taken a very brave step towards peace. I want my Kurdish and Turkish brothers to support the peace process."[112]
2014 action against Islamic State and renewed tensions in Turkey
Main article: 2014 Kurdish riots in Turkey
The PKK engaged the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) forces in Syria in mid-July 2014 [113] as part of the Syrian Civil War. In August the PKK engaged IS in Northern Iraq and pressured the Government of Turkey to take a stand against IS. [114][115] PKK forces helped tens of thousands of Yazidis escape an encircled Mount Sinjar . [116] In September 2014, during the Siege of Kobane, the PKK, receiving direct U.S. military support, [117] engaged with Islamic State forces in Syria who were attacking Kurdish city Kobane, which resulted in conflicts with Turks on the border and an end to a cease-fire that had been in place over a year. [118] The PKK accused Turkey of supporting ISIS. The PKK participated in many offensives against ISIS in Iraq and Syria. [119]
A number of Turkish Kurds rallied in large-scale street protests, demanding that the government in Ankara take more forceful action to combat IS and to enable Kurdish militants already engaged against IS to more freely move and resupply. These protests included a PKK call for its supporters to turn out. [120] Clashes between police and protesters killed at least 31 people. The Turkish government continued to restrict PKK-associated fighters' movement across its borders, arresting 260 People's Protection Units fighters who were moving back into Turkey. On 14 October, Turkish Air Force fighter-bombers attacked PKK positions in the vicinity of Daglica, Hakkari Province. [121]
Turkish military statements claimed that the bombings were in response to PKK attacks on a Turkish military outpost in the area. The Firat news agency, which Al Jazeera describes as "close to the PKK", claimed that Turkish forces had been shelling the PKK positions for days beforehand and that the PKK action had itself been retaliation for those artillery strikes. [122] The PKK had already reported several Turkish attacks against their troops months before Turkish bombing started.
Percentage of the popular vote won by the pro-Kurdish Peoples' Democratic Party (HDP) in the 2015 Turkish general election. "The HDP's elections results, which are a proxy indicator of popular support for the PKK, show that the group has followers throughout the country."