Ancient Egypt

For nearly 30 centuries—from its unification round 3100 B.C. to its conquest through Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.—historical Egypt became the preeminent civilization withinside the Mediterranean world. From the notable pyramids of the Old Kingdom via the army conquests of the New Kingdom, Egypt’s majesty has lengthy entranced archaeologists and historians and created a colourful area of take a look at all its very own: Egyptology. The predominant reassets of facts approximately historical Egypt are the various monuments, items and artifacts which have been recovered from archaeological sites, included with hieroglyphs which have simplest currently been deciphered. The image that emerges is of a subculture with few equals withinside the splendor of its art, the accomplishment of its structure or the richness of its non secular traditions.

Predynastic Period (c. 5000-3100 B.C.)
Few written facts or artifacts were observed from the Predynastic Period, which encompassed at the least 2,000 years of slow improvement of the Egyptian civilization.

Did you know? During the guideline of thumb of Akhenaton, his spouse Nefertiti performed an crucial political and non secular position withinside the monotheistic cult of the solar god Aton. Images and sculptures of Nefertiti depict her well-known splendor and position as a dwelling goddess of fertility.

Neolithic (past due Stone Age) groups in northeastern Africa exchanged looking for agriculture and made early advances that paved the manner for the later improvement of Egyptian arts and crafts, technology, politics and faith (consisting of a notable reverence for the lifeless and in all likelihood a perception in existence after demise).

Around 3400 B.C., separate kingdoms had been mounted close to the Fertile Crescent, a place domestic to a number of the world’s oldest civilizations: the Red Land to the north, primarily based totally withinside the Nile River Delta and increasing alongside the Nile possibly to Atfih; and the White Land withinside the south, stretching from Atfih to Gebel es-Silsila. A southern king, Scorpion, made the primary tries to triumph over the northern nation round 3200 B.C. A century later, King Menes could subdue the north and unify the usa, turning into the primary king of the primary dynasty.

Archaic (Early Dynastic) Period (c. 3100-2686 B.C.)
King Menes based the capital of historical Egypt at White Walls (later referred to as Memphis), withinside the north, close to the apex of the Nile River delta. The capital could develop right into a notable town that ruled Egyptian society for the duration of the Old Kingdom length. The Archaic Period noticed the improvement of the rules of Egyptian society, consisting of the all-crucial ideology of kingship. To the historical Egyptians, the king became a godlike being, carefully recognized with the all-effective god Horus. The earliest regarded hieroglyphic writing additionally dates to this era.

In the Archaic Period, as in all different periods, maximum historical Egyptians had been farmers dwelling in small villages, and agriculture (in large part wheat and barley) shaped the monetary base of the Egyptian state. The annual flooding of the notable Nile River supplied the essential irrigation and fertilization every year; farmers sowed the wheat after the flooding receded and harvested it earlier than the season of excessive temperatures and drought back.

Old Kingdom: Age of the Pyramid Builders (c. 2686-2181 B.C.)

The Old Kingdom started with the 0.33 dynasty of pharaohs. Around 2630 B.C., the 0.33 dynasty’s King Djoser requested Imhotep, an architect, priest and healer, to layout a funerary monument for him; the end result became the world’s first foremost stone constructing, the Step-Pyramid at Saqqara, close to Memphis. Egyptian pyramid-constructing reached its zenith with the development of the Great Pyramid at Giza, at the outskirts of Cairo. Built for Khufu (or Cheops, in Greek), who dominated from 2589 to 2566 B.C., the pyramid became later named through classical historians as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The historical Greek historian Herodotus expected that it took 100,000 guys twenty years to construct it. Two different pyramids had been constructed at Giza for Khufu’s successors Khafra (2558-2532 B.C) and Menkaura (2532-2503 B.C.).

During the 0.33 and fourth dynasties, Egypt loved a golden age of peace and prosperity. The pharaohs held absolute electricity and supplied a strong relevant authorities; the dominion confronted no critical threats from abroad; and a success army campaigns in overseas international locations like Nubia and Libya brought to its sizable monetary prosperity. Over the path of the 5th and 6th dynasties, the king’s wealth became regularly depleted, partly because of the big fee of pyramid-constructing, and his absolute electricity faltered withinside the face of the developing have an impact on of the the Aristocracy and the priesthood that grew up across the solar god Ra (Re). After the demise of the 6th dynasty’s King Pepy II, who dominated for a few ninety four years, the Old Kingdom length resulted in chaos.

First Intermediate Period (c. 2181-2055 B.C.)
On the heels of the Old Kingdom’s collapse, the 7th and 8th dynasties consisted of a fast succession of Memphis-primarily based totally rulers till approximately 2160 B.C., while the relevant authority absolutely dissolved, main to civil strugglefare among provincial governors. This chaotic scenario became intensified through Bedouin invasions and observed through famine and disease.

From this period of battle emerged exclusive kingdoms: A line of 17 rulers (dynasties 9 and 10) primarily based totally in Heracleopolis dominated Middle Egypt among Memphis and Thebes, whilst any other own circle of relatives of rulers arose in Thebes to task Heracleopolitan electricity. Around 2055 B.C., the Theban prince Mentuhotep controlled to topple Heracleopolis and reunited Egypt, starting the eleventh dynasty and finishing the First Intermediate Period.

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Middle Kingdom: twelfth Dynasty (c. 2055-1786 B.C.)
After the ultimate ruler of the eleventh dynasty, Mentuhotep IV, became assassinated, the throne surpassed to his vizier, or leader minister, who have become King Amenemhet I, founding father of dynasty 12. A new capital became mounted at It-towy, south of Memphis, whilst Thebes remained a notable non secular center. During the Middle Kingdom, Egypt over again flourished, because it had for the duration of the Old Kingdom. The twelfth dynasty kings ensured the clean succession in their line through making every successor co-regent, a custom that started with Amenemhet I.

Middle-Kingdom Egypt pursued an competitive overseas policy, colonizing Nubia (with its wealthy deliver of gold, ebony, ivory and different resources) and repelling the Bedouins who had infiltrated Egypt for the duration of the First Intermediate Period. The nation additionally constructed diplomatic and alternate members of the family with Syria, Palestine and different international locations; undertook constructing tasks consisting of army fortresses and mining quarries; and back to pyramid-constructing withinside the lifestyle of the Old Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom reached its height below Amenemhet III (1842-1797 B.C.); its decline started below Amenenhet IV (1798-1790 B.C.) and persevered below his sister and regent, Queen Sobekneferu (1789-1786 B.C.), who became the primary showed girl ruler of Egypt and the ultimate ruler of the twelfth dynasty.

Second Intermediate Period (c. 1786-1567 B.C.)
The thirteenth dynasty marked the start of any other unsettled length in Egyptian history, for the duration of which a fast succession of kings didn't consolidate electricity. As a consequence, for the duration of the Second Intermediate Period Egypt became divided into numerous spheres of have an impact on. The reliable royal courtroom docket and seat of presidency became relocated to Thebes, whilst a rival dynasty (the 14th), targeted at the town of Xois withinside the Nile delta, appears to have existed on the identical time because the thirteenth.

Around 1650 B.C., a line of overseas rulers referred to as the Hyksos took benefit of Egypt’s instability to take manage. The Hyksos rulers of the fifteenth dynasty followed and persevered the various present Egyptian traditions in authorities in addition to subculture. They dominated simultaneously with the road of local Theban rulers of the seventeenth dynasty, who retained manage over maximum of southern Egypt no matter having to pay taxes to the Hyksos. (The sixteenth dynasty is variously believed to be Theban or Hyksos rulers.) Conflict in the end flared among the 2 groups, and the Thebans released a strugglefare towards the Hyksos round 1570 B.C., using them out of Egypt.

New Kingdom (c. 1567-1085 B.C.)

Under Ahmose I, the primary king of the 18th dynasty, Egypt became over again reunited. During the 18th dynasty, Egypt restored its manage over Nubia and started army campaigns in Palestine, clashing with different powers withinside the vicinity consisting of the Mitannians and the Hittites. The usa went on to set up the world’s first notable empire, stretching from Nubia to the Euphrates River in Asia. In addition to effective kings consisting of Amenhotep I (1546-1526 B.C.), Thutmose I (1525-1512 B.C.) and Amenhotep III (1417-1379 B.C.), the New Kingdom became extraordinary for the position of royal girls consisting of Queen Hatshepsut (1503-1482 B.C.), who started ruling as a regent for her younger stepson (he later have become Thutmose III, Egypt’s best army hero), however rose to wield all of the powers of a pharaoh.

The arguable Amenhotep IV (c. 1379-1362), of the past due 18th dynasty, undertook a non secular revolution, disbanding the priesthoods committed to Amon-Re (a aggregate of the nearby Theban god Amon and the solar god Re) and forcing the specific worship of any other solar-god, Aton. Renaming himself Akhenaton (“servant of the Aton”), he constructed a brand new capital in Middle Egypt known as Akhetaton, regarded later as Amarna. Upon Akhenaton’s demise, the capital back to Thebes and Egyptians back to worshiping a large number of gods. The nineteenth and twentieth dynasties, referred to as the Ramesside length (for the road of kings named Ramses) noticed the healing of the weakened Egyptian empire and an outstanding quantity of constructing, consisting of notable temples and cities. According to biblical chronology, the exodus of Moses and the Israelites from Egypt in all likelihood took place for the duration of the reign of Ramses II (1304-1237 B.C.).

All of the New Kingdom rulers (aside from Akhenaton) had been laid to relaxation in deep, rock-reduce tombs (now no longer pyramids) withinside the Valley of the Kings, a burial web website online at the west financial institution of the Nile contrary Thebes. Most of them had been raided and destroyed, aside from the tomb and treasure of Tutankhamen (c.1361-1352 B.C.), found in large part intact in A.D. 1922. The exceptional mortuary temple of the ultimate notable king of the 20 th dynasty, Ramses III (c. 1187-1156 B.C.), became additionally enormously properly preserved, and indicated the prosperity Egypt nevertheless loved for the duration of his reign. The kings who accompanied Ramses III had been much less a success: Egypt misplaced its provinces in Palestine and Syria for appropriate and suffered from overseas invasions (substantially through the Libyans), whilst its wealth became being regularly however unavoidably depleted.

Third Intermediate Period (c. 1085-664 B.C.)
The subsequent four hundred years–referred to as the Third Intermediate Period–noticed crucial adjustments in Egyptian politics, society and subculture. Centralized authorities below the twenty first dynasty pharaohs gave manner to the resurgence of nearby officers, whilst foreigners from Libya and Nubia grabbed electricity for themselves and left an enduring imprint on Egypt’s population. The twenty second dynasty started round 945 B.C. with King Sheshonq, a descendant of Libyans who had invaded Egypt for the duration of the past due twentieth dynasty and settled there. Many nearby rulers had been absolutely self sustaining for the duration of this era and dynasties 23-24 are poorly documented.

In the 8th century B.C., Nubian pharaohs starting with Shabako, ruler of the Nubian nation of Kush, mounted their very own dynasty–the 25th–at Thebes. Under Kushite rule, Egypt clashed with the developing Assyrian empire. In 671 B.C., the Assyrian ruler Esarhaddon drove the Kushite king Taharka out of Memphis and destroyed the town; he then appointed his very own rulers out of nearby governors and officers unswerving to the Assyrians. One of them, Necho of Sais, dominated in short because the first king of the twenty sixth dynasty earlier than being killed through the Kushite chief Tanuatamun, in a final, unsuccessful take hold of for electricity.

From the Late Period to Alexander’s Conquest (c.664-332 B.C.)
Beginning with Necho’s son, Psammetichus, the Saite dynasty dominated a reunified Egypt for much less than centuries. In 525 B.C., Cambyses, king of Persia, defeated Psammetichus III, the ultimate Saite king, on the Battle of Pelusium, and Egypt have become a part of the Persian Empire. Persian rulers consisting of Darius (522-485 B.C.) dominated the usa in large part below the identical phrases as local Egyptian kings: Darius supported Egypt’s non secular cults and undertook the constructing and healing of its temples. The tyrannical rule of Xerxes (486-465 B.C.) sparked expanded uprisings below him and his successors. One of those rebellions triumphed in 404 B.C., starting one ultimate length of Egyptian independence below local rulers (dynasties 28-30).

In the mid-fourth century B.C., the Persians once more attacked Egypt, reviving their empire below Ataxerxes III in 343 B.C. Barely a decade later, in 332 B.C., Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeated the armies of the Persian Empire and conquered Egypt. After Alexander’s demise, Egypt became dominated through a line of Macedonian kings, starting with Alexander’s wellknown Ptolemy and persevering with together along with his descendants. The ultimate ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt–the mythical Cleopatra VII–surrendered Egypt to the armies of Octavian (later Augustus) in 31 B.C. Six centuries of Roman rule accompanied, for the duration of which Christianity have become the reliable faith of Rome and the Roman Empire’s provinces (consisting of Egypt). The conquest of Egypt through the Arabs withinside the 7th century A.D. and the creation of Islam could get rid of the ultimate outward components of historical Egyptian subculture and propel the usa closer to its cutting-edge incarnation.

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