The biggest difference is the angle of inclination of the earth relative to the sun. The earth doesn't rotate perfectly perpendicular to the sun, the axis of rotation is inclined. That difference, and the annual orbit into and out of the inclination is responsible for the seasons.

We get almost 0 direct heat from the sun. What we have is radiant heat when the light bounces off of dirt or clouds or, in the case of the poles, ice. Dirt does a WAY better job of converting light energy into heat than ice does. The sunlight simply reflects off the shiner surfaces (includes water) and often bounces up to convert in the atmosphere on the bottom of clouds. Atmospheric heating which is far more general than localized heating. It's also why sitting in the shade is cooler than in the sun. If the heat came directly from the sun it would be the same, shade or sun.

So. I live unfortunately close to that spot in Colliefornya where that temperature was recorded. I can tell you that Death Valley is a generally very warm spot. I truly love the place in December, not so much now.

I am out most every morning when the sun comes up. I note the spot where it rises relative to where I am every day. It's now much closer to due east than it had been a month ago. On the solstice there is a prominent gap in the mountains directly east of my location. On solstice day the sun rises in that gap. It's on the south facing slope of the gap now.

Good questions. I hope I gave some good answers. I'm sure there are others that will come in here and make things more clear.