Disclaimer
It is not the aim of anthropological study to obtain factual knowledge of supernatural beings or powers. The aim, instead, is to understand the great variety of conceptions of the supernatural within the context of particular systems or communities. Anthropologists will unavoidably be influenced by their own beliefs and their own conception (or denial) of supernatural. It is, however, their task to understand any religious system in terms of its meaning for its adherents.

The Anthropological view on Religion, The Supernatural and Magic: Part 6

Revelations during altered states of consciousness

Dreams and visions, together with trance and possession, belong to a category of experiences that psychologists call "altered states of consciousness". Such states of consciousness refer to experiences of which one is aware, but which differ from the ordinary (eg during trance or hypnosis) .

The degree of consciousness in such cases varies. Dreams and possession form the two extreme states, while vision and trance are located between these two extremes.

DREAMS - VISION - TRANCE - POSSESSION

The importance of these experiences for the anthropological study of religion is that such states are often ascribed to the influence of supernatural forces or beings. Moreover, different communities interpret these states in terms of their particular sociocultural contexts.

Dreams

In contemporary western sociocultural systems, dreams are usually interpreted in terms of psychological or psychoanalytic principles, according to which the content of dreams is closely related to people's experiences, desires and circumstances. Many people, however, believe that dreams have revelatory or supernatural meaning. Examples can be found in respect of revelations from the supernatural. In ancient times, attempts were sometimes made to be receptive to such dreams, for example, where someone would sleep in the temple of a certain God or in some other sacred place in order to receive advice from a deity.

In preliterate and pre-industrial communities dreams often play a major part in religion, medicine and magic. Dreams are regarded as sources of information about the future or about the supernatural, and are therefore regarded as messages from the supernatural realm.

Trance

During a trance, an individual experiences or sees or hears things he or she would not normally experience. Furthermore, during a trance, a person does not respond to stimuli in a normal way. Trance can be induced in various ways, including by means of drugs and by means of rhythmic music and dancing.

One of the best known examples of revelations during such conditions is that which occurred at Delphi, an old Greek settlement on the southern slope of mount Parnassus where an important shrine of Apollo was erected. A woman, called the Pythia, sat on a tripod above a crevice that emitted fumes of mineral gas, which presumably induced a state of semi-consciousness. Her statements during this sate of trance were carefully studied by the priests as guidelines in political and religious matters.

Visions

Visions usually occur when the recipient is awake or in a trance. Many religious systems include reports of visions during which individuals received communications from the supernatural. Since receiving a vision is a highly individual experience and its acknowledgement by others depends upon the person's ability to convince them of the authenticity of the experience.

Possession

As explained above, possession is an extreme form of an altered state of consciousness. In the case of possession, the individual is believed to be inhabited by and to become one with an external power or spirit. There are different types of possession, both malevolent and benevolent. Malevolent possession is when the person is believed to be possessed by an evil spirit or devil that manifests itself as a form of illness. Benevolent possession occurs where someone is inhabited by benevolent spirits who speak and act through his or her body. Only the latter form of possession is relevant for our present discussion. John Bettie further distinguishes between mediumship and shamanism.

-Mediumship describes a person under the control of a spirit which communicates with other people through the possessed person (the medium sometimes speaks in an unusual manner, or with an unusual accent).

• In the case of shamanism the possessed person is believed to command and control the spirit by which he/she is possessed.

We shall deal with shamanism subsequently. Here our concern is with the kind of possession that Beattie calls mediumship.

The personality of the individual is displaced by that of the God or spirit, and he/she is held to be the deity him or herself. The possessed person often undergoes a complete change of personality, and likewise his/der facial expression and behaviour become completely different. Possession is also a way of ascertaining the will of the supernatural beings that control the universe.

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Experience as revelation

Belief in the existence of supernatural beings and powers is frequently accompanied by belief in their ability to influence the lives of the living. This is why prosperity and misfortune are often interpreted as:

• having a supernatural origin
• indications of the benevolence, displeasure or satisfaction of supernatural beings
• indicating a person's moral failure, shortcomings or, alternatively, his/her goodness
• the result of a person's ability to manipulate supernatural powers

The meaning attached to experience may not necessarily be derived from the nature of the experience itself. Misfortune, for instance, may be interpreted as punishment for wrong doing or the work of malevolent supernatural beings. Alternatively, however, it may be seen as a form of trial and testing. Likewise, good fortune may be seen as an indication of a supernatural being's benevolence or satisfaction (eg winning the Lotto). A particular event may also be seen as having a natural cause, without interference of a supernatural being, or as pure coincidence. If the source or meaning of an event is not known, a diviner may be consulted.

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Divination

Divination is a method of consulting the supernatural in order to obtain information that is only available to supernatural beings. Such information may concern any aspect of life where uncertainty or complete ignorance makes a solution by rational means impossible (eg the future, illness, bewildering events, etc). Divination does not take place during an altered state of consciousness, but instead is a procedure. In his Dictionary of Anthropology Winick (1970) provides a list of 44 different methods of divination, which is an indication of just how widespread the practice of divination is.

Herskovits divides divining methods into two broad categories, namely divining that is performed by means of devices believed to be independent of the diviner, and those methods in which contact is made with a spirit in order to obtain information.

Interestingly enough, divination is still practiced in industrial, western societies in the form of card reading (The Tarot), crystal-ball gazing, and so forth. In these cases, there is no particular deity or spirit that is consulted, and the persons practising divination in these forms rely for their information on the means them-selves, or on someone having the knowledge to interpret such means.

The end of Part 6....

Thank you for reading.

Images are linked to their sources in their description and references are stated below.

Authors and Text Titles

Winick 1970: Dictionary of Anthropology
Jordaan & Jordaan 1984: Man in context
Olivier 1976: Die religious van die Gcaleka
Wessels 1984: Tamil-hindoes
Beattie 1964: Other Cultures
Herskovits 1948: Man his works
Robert Redfield: The primitive world view
CR Ember 2005 : Anthropology 11th Edition
WA Haviland 2008: Anthropology: The Human Challenge 12th Edition
BA Pauw 1970: Religion and magic
AFC Wallace 1966: Religion: An anthropological view
Hiebbert 1983
Thank you @rocking-dave for the SteemStem gif