Martial art

Martial arts are codified systems and traditions of combat practices, which are practiced for a number of reasons: as self-defense , military and law enforcement applications, mental and spiritual development; as well as entertainment and the preservation of a nation's intangible cultural heritage .
Although the term martial art has become associated with the fighting arts of eastern Asia, it originally referred to the combat systems of
Europe as early as the 1550s. The term is derived from Latin, and means "arts of Mars ", the Roman god of war. [1] Some authors have argued that fighting arts or fighting systems would be more appropriate on the basis that many martial arts were never "martial" in the sense of being used or created by professional warriors. [2]
The martial art of boxing was practiced in the ancient Thera.
Variation and scope
Martial arts may be categorized along a variety of criteria, including:
Traditional or historical arts vs. contemporary styles of folk wrestling and modern hybrid martial arts .
Techniques taught: Armed vs.
unarmed, and within these groups by type of weapon (swordsmanship , stick fighting etc.) and by type of combat (grappling vs. striking ; stand-up fighting vs. ground fighting)
By application or intent: self-defense , combat sport ,
choreography or demonstration of forms, physical fitness , meditation , etc.
Within Chinese tradition: "external" vs. "internal" styles
By technical focus
Unarmed
Unarmed martial arts can be broadly grouped into focusing on strikes , those focusing on grappling and those that cover both fields, often described as hybrid martial arts .
Strikes
Punching : Boxing, Wing Chun,
Karate
Kicking: Taekwondo , Capoeira,
Savate
Others using strikes: Muay Thai ,
Sanshou
Grappling
Throwing: Hapkido, Judo , Sumo ,
Wrestling, Aikido
Joint lock / Chokeholds / Submission holds: Jujutsu, Brazilian jiu-jitsu ,
Sambo
Pinning Techniques : Judo ,
Wrestling, Aikido
Weapon-based
Those traditional martial arts which train armed combat often encompass a wide spectrum of melee weapons , including bladed weapons and
polearms . Such traditions include
eskrima , silat , kalaripayat, kobudo , and historical European martial arts , especially those of the German Renaissance . Many Chinese martial arts also feature weapons as part of their curriculum.
Sometimes, training with one specific weapon will be considered a style of martial arts in its own right, which is especially the case in Japanese martial arts with disciplines such as
kenjutsu and kendo (sword), bojutsu (staff), and kyudo (archery). Similarly, modern Western martial arts and sports include modern fencing , stick-fighting systems like
canne de combat and jogo do pau, and modern competitive archery .
By application or intent
Combat-oriented
Main articles: Combat sport and
Self-defense
Health-oriented
Many martial arts, especially those from Asia, also teach side disciplines which pertain to medicinal practices. This is particularly prevalent in traditional Asian martial arts which may teach bone-setting , herbalism, and other aspects of traditional medicine. [3]
Spirituality-oriented
Martial arts can also be linked with religion and spirituality. Numerous systems are reputed to have been founded, disseminated, or practiced by monks or nuns.
Throughout Asia, meditation may be incorporated as part of training. In those countries influenced by Hindu-Buddhist philosophy, the art itself may be used as an aid to attaining enlightenment.
Japanese styles, when concerning non-physical qualities of the combat, are often strongly influenced by
Mahayana Buddhist philosophy. Concepts like "empty mind" and "beginner's mind" are recurrent.
Aikido , for instance, can have a strong philosophical belief of the flow of energy and peace fostering, as idealised by its founder Morihei Ueshiba .
Traditional Korean martial arts place emphasis on the development of the practitioner's spiritual and philosophical development. A common theme in most Korean styles, such as taekkyeon and
taekwondo , is the value of "inner peace" in a practitioner, which is stressed to be only achieved through individual meditation and training. The Koreans believe that the use of physical force is only justified through defense.
Systema draws upon breathing and relaxation techniques, as well as elements of Russian Orthodox thought, to foster self-conscience and calmness, and to benefit the practitioner in different levels: the physical, the psychological and the spiritual. [4]
Some martial arts in various cultures can be performed in dance-like settings for various reasons, such as for evoking ferocity in preparation for battle or showing off skill in a more stylized manner. Many such martial arts incorporate music, especially strong percussive rhythms. (See also war dance.)
History
Main article: History of martial arts
Further information: Martial arts timeline
Historical martial arts
Main articles: History of Asian martial arts and Historical European martial arts
Further information: History of boxing and History of fencing
Detail of the wrestling fresco in tomb 15 at Beni Hasan.
The oldest works of art depicting scenes of battle are cave paintings from eastern Spain (Spanish Levant) dated between 10,000 and 6,000 BCE that show organized groups fighting with bows and arrows.[5][6]
Chinese martial arts originated during the Xia Dynasty more than 4000 years ago. It is said the Yellow Emperor Huangdi (legendary date of ascension 2698 BC) introduced the earliest fighting systems to China . The Yellow Emperor is described as a famous
general who, before becoming
China 's leader, wrote lengthy treatises on medicine, astrology and the martial arts. One of his main opponents was Chi You who was credited as the creator of jiao di, a forerunner to the modern art of
Chinese wrestling.
The foundation of modern Asian martial arts is likely a blend of early
Chinese and Indian martial arts . During the Warring States period of
Chinese history (480-221 BC) extensive development in martial philosophy and strategy emerged, as described by Sun Tzu in The Art of War (c. 350 BC). [7] Legendary accounts link the origin of
Shaolinquan to the spread of Buddhism from India during the early 5th century AD, with the figure of
Bodhidharma , to China .[8] Written evidence of martial arts in Southern India dates back to the Sangam literature of about the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD. [9] The combat techniques of the Sangam period were the earliest precursors to
Kalaripayattu . [10]
Pankratiasts fighting under the eyes of a judge. Side B of a Panathenaic prize
amphora , c. 500 BC.
In Europe, the earliest sources of martial arts traditions date to Ancient Greece . Boxing (pygme , pyx),
wrestling (pale ) and pankration were represented in the Ancient Olympic Games. The Romans produced
gladiatorial combat as a public spectacle.
A number of historical combat manuals have survived from the European Middle Ages. This includes such styles as sword and shield, two-handed swordfighting and other types of melee weapons besides unarmed combat. Amongst these are transcriptions of Johannes Liechtenauer's mnemonic poem on the longsword dating back to the late fourteenth century. Likewise, Asian martial arts become well-documented during the medieval period, Japanese martial arts beginning with the establishment of the samurai nobility in the 12th century, Chinese martial arts with Ming era treatises such as
Ji Xiao Xin Shu , Indian martial arts in medieval texts such as the Agni Purana and the Malla Purana , and
Korean martial arts from the Joseon era and texts such as Muyejebo (1598).
European swordsmanship always had a sportive component, but the duel was always a possibility until World War I. Modern sport fencing began developing during the 19th century as the French and Italian military academies began codifying instruction. The Olympic games led to standard international rules, with the Féderation Internationale d'Escrime founded in 1913. Modern boxing originates with Jack Broughton 's rules in the 18th century, and reaches its present form with the Marquess of Queensberry Rules of 1867.
Folk styles
Main article: Folk wrestling
Certain traditional combat sports and fighting styles exist all over the world, rooted in local culture and folklore. The most common of these are styles of folk wrestling, some of which have been practiced since antiquity, and are found in the most remote areas. Other examples include forms of stick fighting and boxing. While these arts are based on historical traditions of folklore, they are not "historical" in the sense that they reconstruct or preserve a historical system from a specific era. They are rather contemporary regional sports that coexist with the modern forms of martial arts sports as they have developed since the 19th century, often including cross-fertilization between sports and folk styles; thus, the traditional Thai art of
muay boran developed into the modern national sport of muay Thai , which in turn came to be practiced worldwide and contributed significantly to modern hybrid styles like kickboxing and mixed martial arts . Singlestick , an English martial art can be seen often utilised in
morris dancing. Many European dances share elements of martial arts with examples including Ukrainian Hopak , Polish Zbójnicki (use of ciupaga ), the Czech dance
odzemek , and the Norwegian Halling.
Modern history
Further information: Modern history of East Asian martial arts
Late 19th to early 20th century
The mid to late 19th century marks the beginning of the history of martial arts as modern sports developed out of earlier traditional fighting systems. In Europe, this concerns the developments of boxing and fencing as sports. In Japan, the same period marks the formation of the modern forms of judo, jujutsu ,
karate , and kendo (among others) based on revivals of old schools of
Edo period martial arts which had been suppressed during the Meiji Restoration . [citation needed] Modern
muay Thai rules date to the 1920s. In China, the modern history of martial arts begins in the Nanjing decade (1930s) following the foundation of the Central Guoshu Institute in 1928 under the Kuomintang government.
Western interest in Asian martial arts arises towards the end of the 19th century, due to the increase in trade between the United States with China and Japan. [citation needed] Relatively few Westerners actually practiced the arts, considering it to be mere performance. Edward William Barton-Wright , a railway engineer who had studied jujutsu while working in Japan between 1894 and 1897, was the first man known to have taught Asian martial arts in Europe. He also founded an eclectic style named
Bartitsu which combined jujutsu , judo, wrestling, boxing, savate and stick fighting.
Fencing and Greco-Roman wrestling was included in the 1896 Summer Olympics . FILA Wrestling World Championships and Boxing at the Summer Olympics were introduced in 1904. The tradition of awarding
championship belts in wrestling and boxing can be traced to the Lonsdale Belt, introduced in 1909.
20th century (1914 to 1989)
Bruce Lee and his teacher Yip Man .
Jackie Chan, one of the best known Hollywood actors and martial artists.
The International Boxing Association was established in 1920. World Fencing Championships have been held since 1921.
As Western influence grew in Asia a greater number of military personnel spent time in China, Japan and South Korea during World War II and the
Korean War and were exposed to local fighting styles. Jujutsu, judo and karate first became popular among the mainstream from the 1950s-60s. Due in part to Asian and Hollywood
martial arts movies , most modern American martial arts are either Asian-derived or Asian influenced. [11] The term kickboxing (キックボクシング) was created by the Japanese boxing promoter Osamu Noguchi for a variant of muay Thai and karate that he created in the 1950s. American kickboxing was developed in the 1970s, as a combination of boxing and karate. Taekwondo was developed in the context of the
Korean War in the 1950s.
The later 1960s and 1970s witnessed an increased media interest in
Chinese martial arts , influenced by martial artist Bruce Lee . Bruce Lee is credited as one of the first instructors to openly teach Chinese martial arts to Westerners. [12] World Judo Championships have been held since 1956, Judo at the Summer Olympics was introduced in 1964.
Karate World Championships were introduced in 1970.
Following the "kung fu wave" in Hong Kong action cinema in the 1970s, a number of mainstream films produced during the 1980s contributed significantly to the perception of martial arts in western
popular culture. These include The Karate Kid (1984) and Bloodsport (1988). This era produced some
Hollywood action stars with martial arts background, such as Jean-Claude Van Damme and Chuck Norris .
Also during the 20th century, a number of martial arts were adapted for self-defense purposes for military hand-to-hand combat. World War II combatives , KAPAP (1930s) and Krav Maga (1950s) in Israel,
Systema in Soviet-era Russia, and
Sanshou in the People's Republic of China are examples of such systems. The US military de-emphasized hand-to-hand combat training during the
Cold War period, but revived it with the introduction of LINE in 1989.
1990 to present
During the 1990s Brazilian jiu-jitsu became popular and proved to be effective in mixed martial arts competitions such as the UFC and
PRIDE .[13]
In 1993 the first Pancrase event was held. [14] The K-1 rules of kickboxing were introduced based on 1980s
Seidokaikan karate.
Jackie Chan and Jet Li are prominent movie figures who have been responsible for promoting Chinese martial arts in recent years.
With the continual discovery of more
medieval and Renaissance fighting manuals, the practice of Historical European Martial Arts and other
Western Martial Arts are growing in popularity across the United States and Europe.
November 29, 2011, UNESCO inscribed taekkyeon onto its Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity List.[15]
Reviving of lost martial arts
Many martial arts which originated in
Southern India were banned by the government of the British Raj , [16] few of them which barely survived are
Kalaripayattu and Silambam. These and other martial arts survived by telling the British government it was a form of dance. Varma kalai , a martial arts concentrating on vital points, was almost dead but is gradually being revived. [17]
Testing and competition
Testing or evaluation is important to martial artists of many disciplines who wish to determine their progression or own level of skill in specific contexts. Students often undergo periodic testing and grading by their own teacher in order to advance to a higher level of recognized achievement, such as a different belt color or title. The type of testing used varies from system to system but may include forms or
sparring.
Steven Ho executing a Jump Spin Hook Kick
Various forms and sparring are commonly used in martial art exhibitions and tournaments. Some competitions pit practitioners of different disciplines against each other using a common set of rules, these are referred to as mixed martial arts competitions. Rules for sparring vary between art and organization but can generally be divided into light-contact , medium-contact, and full-contact variants, reflecting the amount of force that should be used on an opponent.